DISTILLATIONTHEORY AND EQUIPMENT DESIGN

DISTILLATIONTHEORY AND EQUIPMENT DESIGN

Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction.Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power generation and heating. Water is distilled to remove impurities, such as salt from seawater. Air is distilled to separate its components—notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon—for industrial use. Distillation of fermented solutions has been used since ancient times to produce distilled beverages with a higher alcohol content. The premises where distillation is carried out, especially distillation of alcohol, are known as a distillery.

Contents:

History:

Distillation apparatus of Zosimus, from

The first clear evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the first century AD.^[2] Distilled water has been known since at least ca. 200 AD, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process.^[3] Arabs learned the process from the Egyptians and used it extensively in their chemical experiments^{[citation needed]}. They introduced the apparatuses (such as the alembic, still, and retort) which were able to fully purify chemical substances^{[citation needed]}.

Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century.^[4][5] Fractional distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century.^[6]
In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation)^[7] the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed^[8] that much of it derives from Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation.

 

A retort.

Distillation

Old Ukrainian vodka still

As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both alembics and retorts are forms of glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle which acted as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were invented. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour.^[9] These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called pot stills. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols such as cognac, Scotch whisky, tequila and some vodkas. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for the domestic production^[10] of flower water or essential oils.
Early forms of distillation were batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists were reported to carry out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.^[11]
In the early 19th century the basics of modern techniques including pre-heating and reflux were developed, particularly by the French,^[11] then in 1830 a British Patent was issued to Aeneas Coffey for a whiskey distillation column,^[12] which worked continuously and may be regarded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units. In 1877, Ernest Solvay was granted a U.S. Patent for a tray column for ammonia distillation^[13] and the same and subsequent years saw developments of this theme for oil and spirits.
With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method and the Fenske equation. The availability of powerful computers has also allowed direct computer simulation of distillation columns.

 Applications of distillation:

The application of distillation can roughly be divided in four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal distillate), and food processing. The latter two are distinctively different from the former two in that in the processing of beverages, the distillation is not used as a true purification method but more to transfer all volatiles from the source materials to the distillate.
The main difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation is that laboratory scale distillation is often performed batch-wise, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its component fractions which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms (remaining least or non-volatile fraction) removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the process repeated.
In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a better control of the separation process.

 Idealized distillation model

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure in the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the normal boiling point, where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.
It is a common misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure and the vapors of each component will collect separately and purely. This, however, does not occur even in an idealized system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by Raoult's law and Dalton's law, and assume that vapor-liquid equilibria are attained.
Raoult's law assumes that a component contributes to the total vapor pressure of the mixture in proportion to its percentage of the mixture and its vapor pressure when pure, or succinctly: partial pressure equals mole fraction multiplied by vapor pressure when pure. If one component changes another component's vapor pressure, or if the volatility of a component is dependent on its percentage in the mixture, the law will fail.
Dalton's law states that the total vapor pressure is the sum of the vapor pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. Note that a mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure, when the components are mutually soluble.
An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and thus are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily evaporate also, albeit being less concentrated in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch evaporates, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures.
The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is a composition with a boiling point higher or lower than the boiling point of each separate liquid. Virtually all liquids, when mixed and heated, will display azeotropic behaviour. Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate vapor-liquid equilibrium data is by measurement.
It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be applied. When a binary mixture is evaporated and the other component, e.g. a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler and is called evaporation in engineering.

Batch distillation:

Main article: Batch distillation

A batch still showing the separation of A and B.

Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances A and B (with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point) in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid which contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid: the ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This in turn means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e. more enriched in B than the starting liquid).
The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which in turn results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio A : B in the distillate.
If the difference in vapor pressure between the two components A and B is large (generally expressed as the difference in boiling points), the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.

[Continuous distillation:

Main article: Continuous distillation

Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams as time passes during the operation. Continuous distillation produces at least two output fractions, including at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.
Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state for an arbitrary amount of time. For any source material of specific composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages (practically, the number of trays or the height of packing). Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor-liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column.

General improvements:

Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a fractionating column on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor-liquid equilibrium.
There are differences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include:

• Air condenser
• Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only)
• Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material)
• Spinning band distillation system.

 Laboratory scale distillation:

Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapour is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also distillation types).

 Simple distillation:

In simple distillation, all the hot vapors produced are immediately channeled into a condenser that cools and condenses the vapors. Therefore, the distillate will not be pure - its composition will be identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure, and can be computed from Raoult's law.
As a result, simple distillation is usually used only to separate liquids whose boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 °C),^[14] or to separate liquids from involatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually sufficiently different that Raoult's law may be neglected due to the insignificant contribution of the less volatile component. In this case, the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose.

Fractional distillation:

Main article: Fractional distillation

For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components well by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.^[15]
As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component.^[16] In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description.
More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teflon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates.^[17]

 Steam distillation:

Main article: Steam distillation

Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.^[18] This process involves bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.
Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care.

Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 °C. Under a vacuum, it distills off into the receiver at only 70 °C.

Perkin triangle distillation setup
1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Still pot 3: Fractionating column 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Teflon tap 1 6: Cold finger 7: Cooling water out 8: Cooling water in 9: Teflon tap 2 10: Vacuum/gas inlet 11: Teflon tap 3 12: Still receiver

 Vacuum distillation:

Main article: Vacuum distillation

Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator.

This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure.
Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr.^[19] 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e. the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.

Air-sensitive vacuum distillation:

Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "cow" or "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.
The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.

 Short path distillation:

Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold finger - bent to direct condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas inlet 6: Distillate flask/distillate.

Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.^[20] A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus which often contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.

 Other types:

• The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup.
• Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane.
• Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
• Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage.
• Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible.

The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation":

• In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump.
• In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.

Other uses:

• Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name - wood alcohol.
• Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them.

 Azeotropic distillation:

Main article: Azeotropic distillation

Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail nonideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95.6% at 78.1 °C.
If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a pure distillate. This set of techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by "jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding an additional component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent or a (desiccant such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well.
Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component. The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law. The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid-liquid separator (a decanter) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up.
High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 weight percent mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component.
To break azeotropic distillations and cross distillation boundaries, such as in the DeRosier Problem, it is necessary to increase the composition of the light key in the distillate.

Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation:

The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it's possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapour pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain identical further along the pressure axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears.
This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.
Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.
Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling.
A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.

 Pressure-swing distillation:

Further information: Pressure-Swing Distillation (section on the main Azeotrope page)

This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the section; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2009)

Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed.^{[clarification needed]}This has an important impact on the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist^{[citation needed]} to optimize a process such that fewer extremes of pressure and temperature are required and less energy is consumed. This is particularly important in commercial applications.
Pressure-swing distillation is employed during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol.

 Industrial distillation:

Typical industrial distillation towers

Main article: Continuous distillation

Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
Industrial distillation^[15][21] is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.

Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower

Industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficiency of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required.
Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor.

Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps

Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method^[15][22] or the Fenske equation^[15] can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor-liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor-liquid equilibrium stages.
In modern industrial uses, generally a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum.

Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column^[23]

This packing material can either be random dumped packing (1-3" wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor-liquid equilibrium, the vapor-liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent of a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.^[24][25] Considerable work as been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).^[26]

 Multi-effect distillation:

The goal of multi-effect distillation is to increase the energy efficiency of the process, for use in desalination, or in some cases one stage in the production of ultrapure water. The number of effects is proportional to the kW·h/m³ of water recovered figure, and refers to the volume of water recovered per unit of energy compared with single-effect distillation. One effect is roughly 636 kW·h/m³.

• Multi-stage flash distillation Can achieve more than 20 effects with thermal energy input, as mentioned in the article.

• Vapor compression evaporation Commercial large-scale units can achieve around 72 effects with electrical energy input, according to manufacturers.

There are many other types of multi-effect distillation processes, including one referred to as simply multi-effect distillation (MED), in which multiple chambers, with intervening heat exchangers, are employed.

[ Distillation in food processing]

 Distilled beverages:

Main article: Distilled beverage

Carbohydrate-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage.

India's Top 50 Engineering Colleges 2011

Ranking the top colleges is a very difficult task. While it is relatively easy to create clusters of colleges, it is differentiating within clusters that became the most difficult exercise. So for the first time in the country we have used balanced scorecard methodology to arrive at the ranking of the top 50 colleges. Ranking methodology: We scanned the last five year rankings of about 241 colleges and normalised their ranks, by assigning differential weights to subjective and objective ranking. Such a process is used to develop clusters of institutions. The research standing of individual institutions were further used to refine the clusters and remove the odd men out. Individual clusters were ranked serially. In each of these clusters the differences in cut-off marks, wherever possible (like in case of IITs and AIEEE institutes and some States) were used to arrive at individual ranks. Heavily dominated by public institutions, the top-50 listing is a roll call of excellence India’s top 50 engineering institutions 2011

 

The world's top 10 universities, 2010

Harvard forfeits first place to the University of Cambridge in a league table of the world's top institutions, the first time in the list's seven year history that the Ivy League university has been knocked off the number one spot

The QS table is based on measures of research quality, graduate employability, teaching and how international the faculties and student bodies are.
Harvard was still most popular among the 5,000 employers polled worldwide, but Cambridge was voted best for research quality in a survey of 15,000 academics and took overall first place. The rankings also use citation counts from a database of academic publishing.
So here are the top 10 universities in the world.
First up: Cambridge University

Name: University of Cambridge
Score: 100.00
Location: Trinity Lane, Cambridge CB2 1TN United Kingdom
History
The University of Cambridge (informally Cambridge University, or simply Cambridge) is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second oldest university in both England and the English-speaking world and the seventh oldest university globally.
Academically, Cambridge ranks as one of the world's topmost universities, as well as the leading university in Europe, and contends with Oxford for first place in UK league tables. Affiliates of the University have won more Nobel Prizes than those of any other institution in the world - with 88 Nobel Laureates as of October 4, 2010 - the most recent one being Robert G. Edwards for the prize in physiology or medicine. The University is a member of the Russell Group of research-led British universities, the Coimbra Group, the League of European Research Universities and the International Alliance of Research Universities. It forms part of the 'Golden Triangle' of British universities.
Courses offered
There is a variety of options for studies at Cambridge - undergraduate studies, graduate studies, conferences and part-time courses for adult learners and executive education and training are just some of the numerous learning opportunities available here.
Most well known for/Specialises in
Although diversified in its research and teaching interests, Cambridge today maintains its strength in mathematics.
Prominent faculty (including Indians)
Prominent current members of the Faculty of Economics include Sir Partha Dasgupta, who has been President of both the Royal Economic Society and the European Economic Association and Professor David Newbery, who has also been President of the European Economic Association. Other current Faculty members are closely involved in a number of governmental and international advisory panels and research groups.
Famous Alumni
Among the most famous of Cambridge polymaths is Sir Isaac Newton, who spent the majority of his life at the university and conducted many of his now famous experiments within the grounds of Trinity College. Sir Francis Bacon, responsible for the development of the Scientific Method, entered the university when he was just twelve, and pioneering mathematicians John Dee and Brook Taylor have also studied at this prestigious university.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
Graduate students operate on the basis of the academic year which extends beyond the end of the Easter Term. The Academic year commences on 1st October and finishes on 30th September each year. Dates for General Admission (the degree ceremony mainly for undergraduate awards) and other degree ceremonies are listed separately. Graduands should check with their College's Praelector to find on which of the dates their College will be represented.
Tentative cost of courses
£3,290 per year. Details of the costs expected are available from the University Graduate Studies Prospectus.
Scholarships offered
The Cambridge Commonwealth Trust and the Cambridge Overseas Trust offer part-cost and a limited number of full-cost awards to overseas (non-EU) students, including affiliated students, who have been accepted for admission by a Cambridge College. To apply for funding through the Trusts, you must have been offered a place at one of the Colleges, at which point the College will ask you to complete an application form. All awards are allocated based on academic merit, and are means-tested.
Presence in India
For over 150 years, Cambridge has been attracting students and scholars from India, many of whom have gone on to become leaders in their fields of arts, humanities, science, politics to name but a few areas. The connections with India are not however only one way and there are numerous instances of Cambridge academics and students spending time in India on their own for fieldwork visits or with their collaborators and partner institutions. Detailed information about the University's long-standing connections with India can be found at the 'Cambridge India Partnership' website.
In addition to the academic linkages, the University is also present in India through its two subsidiary businesses - namely Cambridge Assessment and Cambridge University Press - as well as the network of alumni societies.
Next: Harvard University

Name: Harvard University
Score: 99.18
Location: 1350 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge 02138 United States
History
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. It was named after its first benefactor, John Harvard. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation (officially The President and Fellows of Harvard College) chartered in the country.
Harvard employs over 2,000 faculty to teach and advise approximately 6,700 undergraduate and 13,600 graduate and professional students. Eight U.S. Presidents have graduated from Harvard and 75 Nobel Laureates have been affiliated with the university as students, faculty, or staff. Harvard is also the alma mater of sixty-two living billionaires, the most in the country. The Harvard University Library is the largest academic library in the United States, and the second largest library in the country.
Courses offered
Harvard's searchable catalog lists over 8,000 courses offered at Harvard University from over 100 departments.
Most well known for/Specialises in
Although it covers nearly all conceivable courses under its roof, Harvard is primarily known for its law and business degrees.
Prominent faculty (including Indians)
Among its most famous current faculty members are biologist E. O. Wilson, cognitive scientist Steven Pinker, physicists Lisa Randall and Roy Glauber, chemists Elias Corey, Dudley R. Herschbach and George M. Whitesides, Shakespeare scholar Stephen Greenblatt, economists Amartya Sen, N. Gregory Mankiw, Robert Barro, Stephen A. Marglin, Don M. Wilson III and Martin Feldstein, political philosophers Harvey Mansfield and Michael Sandel, and sociolinguist Anne Harper Charity Hudley. Since 1974, 19 Nobel Prize winners and 15 winners of the American literary award, the Pulitzer Prize, have served on the Harvard faculty.
Famous Alumni
Notable graduates of Harvard include Theodore Roosevelt, George W. Bush, Benazir Bhutto, Al Gore and Michael Crichton, to name just a few. Seventy-five Nobel Prize winners are affiliated with the university.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
Harvard's academic programs operate on a semester calendar beginning in early September and ending in mid-May. Detailed information on their admission procedures can be found at Harvard's website.
Tentative cost of courses
$53,950 - $56,750. Financial aid is awarded to help with all of these expenses, including an additional standard allowance for travel expenses. In addition, health insurance coverage is required at a cost of $1,788 unless the student is covered under the family's health plan.
Scholarships offered
Harvard does not award merit scholarships. However, students last year brought with them to Harvard more than $13 million in scholarships from outside resources, thus enhancing their own financial flexibility during their college years.
Presence in India
Harvard Business School (HBS) has opened a new India Research Center (IRC) in Mumbai as part of its ongoing commitment to creating intellectual capital for use worldwide as well as to building and strengthening relationships with leading companies, universities, and other organizations around the globe.
Next: Yale University

Name: Yale University
Score: 98.68
Location: P.O. Box 208236, New Haven 06520 United States
History
Yale University is a private Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States.
Incorporated as the Collegiate School, the institution traces its roots to 17th-century clergymen who sought to establish a college to train clergy and political leaders for the colony.
The University's assets include a US$16.3 billion endowment, the second largest of any academic institution, as well as the second largest academic library in the world, with some 12.5 million volumes held in more than two dozen libraries. 49 Nobel Laureates have been affiliated with the University as students, faculty, or staff.
Courses offered
Yale University comprises three major academic components: Yale College (the undergraduate program), the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, and the professional schools. In addition, Yale encompasses a wide array of centers and programs, libraries, museums, and administrative support offices.
Most well known for/Specialises in
The undergraduate school, Yale College, is the heart of the University. More than 2,000 undergraduate courses in the liberal arts and sciences are offered each year by over sixty-five departments and programs, forming a curriculum of remarkable breadth and depth. The faculty is dedicated to undergraduate teaching, and many of Yale's most distinguished professors teach introductory-level courses.
Prominent faculty (including Indians)
Yale's English and Comparative Literature departments were part of the New Criticism movement. Of the New Critics, Robert Penn Warren, W.K. Wimsatt, and Cleanth Brooks were all Yale faculty. Later, the Yale Comparative literature department became a center of American deconstruction. Jacques Derrida, the father of deconstruction, taught at the Department of Comparative Literature from the late seventies to mid-1980s.
Famous Alumni
Yale has produced many notable alumni, including five U.S. Presidents, nineteen U.S. Supreme Court Justices, and several foreign heads of state.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
To be accepted to study at Yale, interested applicants must apply directly to the school, college, or program where the degree will be awarded: Yale College for undergraduate degrees; the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences for doctoral programs and some master's degrees; or one of the professional schools.
Tentative cost of courses
Tuition and fee rates vary for each school, and are established annually. The actual rates are generally available in the spring from a financial aid office.
Scholarships offered
Most financial aid is in the form of grants and scholarships that do not need to be paid back to the University, and the average scholarship for the 2006-2007 school year was $26,900.
Option 1: While Yale does not award merit-based awards, its students often qualify for merit awards from other organizations. Check out the new CAPFAA scholarship for undergrad and graduate students, as well as other opportunities, on the university website. Yale admits students for their academic and personal promise without regard to ability to pay. Its new financial aid policies increase the number of families who qualify for aid. Yale maintains that concern about cost should not keep students from applying. 100% of demonstrated need will be met.
Option 2: Procedures for applying for financial assistance are set by the individual schools. Refer to the university's website for details on your school of preference.
Presence in India
Yale shares its tradition of leadership and service by partnering with the Confederation of Indian Industry and the Government of India to commemorate the nation's achievements and to look ahead to the opportunities for India to realize its immense promise and capacity.

Next: University College London

Name: University College London
Score: 98.54
Location: University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
History
UCL was established in 1826 in order to open up education in England for the first time to students of any race, class or religion. The idea was bold, radical, and responsive to the needs of the world -- three qualities that the college believes passionately in to this day. Its founding principles of academic excellence and research, aimed at addressing real-world problems, inform the university's ethos to this day.
Although UCL voluntarily remains a constituent college of the University of London, it is in most ways comparable with free-standing, self-governing and independently funded universities, and it awards its own degrees.
Located in one of the most metropolitan cities in the world, the college has always believed that excellence should go hand-in-hand with enriching society.
Whether designing the iconic parks or buildings of tomorrow, or grappling with issues such as global health or climate change, the challenges of daily life inspire each generation of UCL students and academics.
Courses offered
UCL offers degree programmes at undergraduate and graduate (postgraduate) level. It also has short courses for adult learning and professional development. UCL's departments offer a growing range of programmes designed to meet both specific professional development and more general interest. Attendance may be through short courses, summer schools or evening seminars. Stand-alone modules, for which academic credit may be awarded, can be taken from certain graduate degrees and Postgraduate Diplomas.
Most well known for/Specialises in
UCL is a major centre for biomedical research, besides offering a variety of regular courses.
Prominent faculty (including Indians)
Notable former UCL faculty and staff include Jocelyn Bell Burnell (co-discoverer of radio pulsars), A. S. Byatt (writer), Lucian Freud (painter), Francis Galton (founder of psychometrics and father of fingerprinting), Sir Frank Kermode (literary critic) and John Stuart Mill (philosopher). All five of the naturally occurring noble gases were discovered at UCL by Sir William Ramsay, who was a professor of chemistry and after whom Ramsay Hall is named.
Famous Alumni
There has been at least one Nobel Laureate from the UCL community every decade, Rabindranath Tagore being one of them, since the establishment of the Nobel Prizes in 1901. There are currently 21 Nobel prizewinners amongst UCL's alumni and former staff.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
For graduate courses, applications are made direct to UCL. There are three options to apply -- online, through a downloadable application form (pdf format), or through a graduate application package (which will be sent to you on request). Applicants who need to meet funding deadlines should submit their applications in good time and certainly no later than five weeks before a funding deadline or 1 March, whichever is the earlier. Although UCL does not have a general deadline for the receipt of applications for graduate study, closing dates are specified for a limited number of programmes (details of which can be found at the college's website).
All undergraduate applications to UCL are made online through UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service. In order to ensure that all applicants are treated equally UCL asks that, regardless of where you are applying from, you submit your application to UCAS by 15 January 2011 at the latest (if applying for Medicine, apply by 15 October 2010). Applications made after these deadlines cannot be guaranteed equal consideration, and will be considered at the discretion of individual departments.
Tentative cost of courses
The fees vary according to the course selected. A detailed break-up on costs that can be expected, including tuition fees, can be found at the college website.
Scholarships offered
Funding schemes include scholarships, awards, prizes, medals, bursaries, and loans.
UCL defines scholarships, awards, prizes and medals as schemes which award funding on the basis of applicants' academic achievements and potential; scholarships will normally be of a higher value than prizes and medals. Prizes and medals are usually awarded to current students only.
Bursaries, grants and loan schemes take account of applicants' financial circumstances.
Presence in India
A small public library supported by UCL Library Services was opened in the Barabanki area of Uttar Pradesh in India in 2009. The library was set up in a room of a village school. The main idea of establishing rural libraries is to combat illiteracy. The project that founded this library has scope to be stretched to found more libraries.
Next: MIT

Name: Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Score: 98.19
Location: 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139-4307
History
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private research institute located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded by William Barton Rogers in 1861 in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Its current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the northern bank of the Charles River basin. MIT was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 and researchers were involved in efforts to develop computers, radar, and inertial guidance in connection with defense research during World War II and the Cold War. In the past 60 years, MIT's educational disciplines have expanded beyond the physical sciences and engineering into fields like biology, economics, linguistics, political science, and management.
Courses offered
Spanning five schools -- architecture and planning; engineering; humanities, arts, and social sciences; management; and science -- and more than 30 departments and programs, an education at MIT covers more than just science and technology.
Most well known for/Specialises in
MIT is known best for a strong emphasis on scientific and technological research.
Prominent faculty (including Indians)
MIT faculty members, including ones in the past, have won a total of 27 Nobel Prizes, the majority in Economics or Physics. Among current faculty and teaching staff, there are 80 Guggenheim Fellows, 6 Fulbright Scholars, and 29 MacArthur Fellows.
Famous Alumni
Many of MIT's over 120,000 alumni and alumnae have had considerable success in scientific research, public service, education, and business. 76 MIT alumni have won the Nobel Prize, 44 have been selected as Rhodes Scholars, and 55 have been selected as Marshall Scholars.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
Students normally enter the Graduate School in September, but some departments allow students to enter in February or June. Notification about admission for September is sent as soon as action is taken (normally before April 1). For February and June applicants, notification is usually sent as soon as the application is complete. The deadlines for the institute's different departments, along with the entrance dates, can be found at the MIT website.
Tentative cost of courses
The estimated average budget for a single graduate student enrolled at MIT for the academic year of nine months is approximately $66,276. A calendar year budget is about $87,692. These figures include tuition (nine months), books and supplies, hospitalization and accident insurance fees, with an allowance for a reasonable standard of living.
The estimated living expenses assume that a student will live frugally. Little is allowed for clothing, travel, and incidental expenses. The budget does not include the purchase or maintenance of an automobile or other such major items. It may be possible with careful budget planning to reduce the allowances for housing and food, but not by more than two or three hundred dollars. Round trip transportation costs and travel insurance are not included.
Scholarships offered
Scholarships, grants and fellowships are types of funding you receive that do not have to be paid back. The main differences lie in the criteria used to award this gift aid and which students are eligible to receive them. In general, scholarships and fellowships are awarded based on academic merit and grants on financial need, although MIT refers to need-based grant money awarded to undergraduates as a scholarship. Scholarships can be awarded to undergraduate or graduate students, grants are awarded primarily to undergraduates, and fellowships primarily to graduate students. The most important thing for you to know about gift aid is how to apply for it.
MIT provided 76 per cent of all aid to its undergraduates in 2008-2009. Of this MIT financial aid, 92 percent took the form of scholarships, less than1 percent was loans, and about 7 percent employment. The average amount per student in 2008-2009 was $29,891.
Presence in India
The institute, among its global initiatives, has an MIT-India Initiative, which is a partnership between MIT and visiting academics and prominent public figures from India. The Initiative facilitates collaborative research ventures in order to foster India's economic growth and enhance global understanding of the new, emerging India. It supports an ambitious portfolio of activities.
Next: Oxford

Name: University of Oxford
Score: 98.2
Location: University of Oxford, University Offices, Wellington Square, Oxford, OX1 2JD, United Kingdom
History
Oxford was the first University in the English-speaking world. Its aim is to remain at the forefront of centres of learning, teaching and research.
Students from more than a 140 countries and territories make up a student population of over 20,000, including 11,765 undergraduates and 8,701 postgraduates. Over a third of the student population comes from outside the United Kingdom.
But it is not just longevity and global reach that mark Oxford out and give the University its special character. There is also the distinctive college and tutorial system which underpins a culture of close academic supervision and careful personal support for its outstanding students. The colleges and halls of which there are more than 40 also help to foster the intense interdisciplinary approach that inspires much of the outstanding research achievement of the University and makes Oxford a leader in so many fields. It is an approach especially suited to confronting many of the hugely complex challenges in life.
Courses offered
Oxford offers a huge variety of undergraduate and graduate courses, which are alphabetically listed at its official website. Each year thousands of people take up lifelong learning opportunities through Oxford University. Oxford University also offers online and distance learning options.
Most well known for/Specialises in
Oxford is a world leader in science research and education, but 2010 is a particularly special year for science. It marks a number of key anniversaries that link the University of Oxford with major scientific milestones.
Famous Oxonians
Throughout its history, Oxford has produced gifted men and women in every sphere of human endeavor who have studied or taught at the University. Among these are 26 British Prime Ministers, including the current one, at least 30 international leaders; 47 Nobel Prize winners; 7 current holders of the Order of Merit; at least 12 saints and 20 Archbishops of Canterbury; and some 50 Olympic medal winners. Former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was educated at Oxford.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
Candidates must check to see if there is a written test for their subject and ensure that they have registered where required. Oxford starts accepting UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service) applications for undergraduate courses from September 1 to October 15 every year.
The University requires online applications for the majority of postgraduate programmes. Paper applications are only acceptable where there is no option to make an online application to the course or in other exceptional cases where it is not possible to apply online. Courses that do not accept online applications are listed in the Oxford website. Application deadlines vary according to the course selected.
Tentative cost of courses
The Oxford website provides information and advice to prospective and current undergraduate and graduate students about fees payable for University tuition, to the college, living costs and sources of funding at the University of Oxford.
Scholarships offered
There are a limited number of undergraduate scholarships available to both UK and international students. More information including details on eligibility and how to apply are available on the official website. A wide range of graduate scholarships is offered by the collegiate University. Performing a search by answering simple questions in the website will yield results that link directly to relevant scholarship web pages containing full information about eligibility and how to apply.
Presence in India
The Indian branch of Oxford University Press, established in 1912, has a proud tradition of publishing its own distinguished scholarly list. Oxford University has started a new postgraduate degree in Modern South Asian Studies, including language studies, and the new MSc in Contemporary India welcomed its first intake of students in 2008. Building on its annual Oxford-India Business Forum, the Saïd Business School is establishing the University of Oxford India Business Centre, co-located in India and in Oxford. Elsewhere, Oxford scientists are connecting with their Indian counterparts through unique networks in physics and cancer research.
Next: Imperial College London

Name: Imperial College London
Score: 97.8
Location: Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ
History
Consistently rated among the world's top university institutions, Imperial College London today is a globally positioned science-based university whose reputation for excellence in teaching and research attracts 11,500 students and 6,000 staff of the highest international quality.
At the heart of the College's strategic intent is the commitment that Imperial will continue to develop its academic activities to meet the changing needs of society, industry and healthcare.
Medical breakthroughs, scientific discoveries and new technologies conceived at Imperial College have helped shape the last 100 years. Imperial researchers are now tackling the issues of the next 100 years and beyond.
Courses offered
Imperial College offers over 110 undergraduate and 120 postgraduate courses.
Most well known for/Specialises in
Imperial College London is a science-based institution with a reputation for excellence in teaching and research.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
For all full-time undergraduate higher education courses, you must make an online application via UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service). All applications which include choices for medicine must be submitted by October 15.
Applications for postgraduate taught programmes open on November 22. Only online applications are accepted.
Tentative cost of courses
The fees depend on the course selected. A detailed fee structure (course-wise) has been provided at the official website.
Scholarships offered
Imperial College offers undergraduate scholarships that reward academic excellence. The eligibility depends on the achievement. Scholarships available from the College do not have to be repaid.
The Student Financial Support team administers a variety of scholarships and award schemes to support postgraduate study. Details can be found at the official website.
Next: University of Chicago

Name: University of Chicago
Score: 97.5
Location: 5801 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637
History
Founded in 1890 by the American Baptist Education Society and oil magnate John D. Rockefeller, the University's land was donated by Marshall Field, owner of the legendary Chicago department store that bore his name. Rockefeller described the donation as "the best investment I ever made."
Located in the community of Hyde Park on Chicago's South Side, just 15 minutes from the city center, the University of Chicago is uniquely positioned to contribute to, and draw from, the strength and diversity of this world-class metropolis. It has also made an indelible mark on the world at large.
Courses offered
Besides offering undergraduate graduate courses, the university also has professional schools and continuing education options (for persons with a bachelor's degree).
Most well known for/Specialises in
The University of Chicago is a pioneer in economics, sociology, literary criticism, and legal education, and is the home to the country's largest university press.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
The University of Chicago accepts the Common Application for undergraduate courses. It also requires the University of Chicago Supplement, which can be found and submitted online. First-year applications can be sent starting from November 1, right through till January 3.
All of the graduate divisions accept applications through the Online Application for Graduate Studies. For more information on program-specific application deadlines, refer to the official website.
Tentative cost of courses
The average expense budget for an academic year is available at the university's website. Entering first-year and transfer students must also pay a College Class Fee in their first year.
Tuition for full-time graduate or professional study varies by academic unit. There are also several required fees. In addition, unless you have medical insurance comparable to the University's policy, you must carry the health insurance plan available through the University.
Scholarships offered
The University of Chicago awarded more than $75 million in grants and scholarships in 2009-10. The University of Chicago offers a number of its own merit scholarships to first-year applicants.
Graduate students at the University receive various levels of financial support and a wide range of student privileges. For more information, visit the university's website.
Presence in India
University of Chicago scholars are at the forefront of research and scholarship on South Asia. In addition to working with these scholars and having access to one of the world's leading private South Asian libraries, students can take part in a quarter-long study program in Pune, India.
Next: Princeton University

Name: Princeton University
Score: 96.0
Location: Princeton, New Jersey 08544 USA
History
Princeton University is a vibrant community of scholarship and learning that stands in the nation's service and in the service of all nations. Chartered in 1746, Princeton is the fourth-oldest college in the United States. Princeton is an independent, coeducational, nondenominational institution that provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering.
As a world-renowned research university, Princeton seeks to achieve the highest levels of distinction in the discovery and transmission of knowledge and understanding. At the same time, Princeton is distinctive among research universities in its commitment to undergraduate teaching.
Today, more than 1,100 faculty members instruct approximately 5,000 undergraduate students and 2,500 graduate students. The University's generous financial aid program ensures that talented students from all economic backgrounds can afford a Princeton education.
Courses offered
Undergraduate students at Princeton benefit from the extraordinary resources of a world-class research institution dedicated to undergraduate teaching. Students graduate with either the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) or the Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S.E.).
The Graduate School offers advanced degrees spanning the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering.
Doctoral education available in all disciplines emphasizes original and independent scholarship, while master's degree programs in architecture, engineering, finance, public affairs and public policy prepare candidates for careers in public life and professional practice.
Most well known for/Specialises in
One of the world's great research centers, Princeton University is the site of pioneering work across all academic areas, from nanotechnology to politics.
Admission procedure/cycle (month/date)
Before preparing an application for undergraduate admission, Princeton strongly recommends a review of its publication on how to apply, which is available in PDF format at the official website.
The application deadline for Princeton's graduate school varies according to the department being applied to. Details of the deadlines for different departments is available at the official website.
Tentative cost of courses
The estimated cost of attendance for an undergraduate course in 2010-11 is $52,180. The cost of attendance for the graduate school is available in PDF format at the official website.
Next: Columbia University

Name: Columbia University
Score: 96.0
Location: City of New York
History
Columbia University is a private research university in New York City and one of the eight members of the Ivy League. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution.
Today, the University operates four global centers overseas in Amman, Jordan; Beijing, China; Paris, France; and Mumbai, India.
From its beginnings in a schoolhouse in lower Manhattan, Columbia University has grown to encompass two principal campuses: the historic, neoclassical campus in the Morningside Heights neighborhood and the modern Medical Center further uptown, in Washington Heights. Today, Columbia is one of the top academic and research institutions in the world, conducting path-breaking research in medicine, science, the arts, and the humanities. It includes three undergraduate schools, thirteen graduate and professional schools, and a school of continuing education.
Courses offered and admission procedure
To obtain information about degrees offered and admissions procedures, please contact the individual schools listed on the website, or explore their listing of academic departments and programs.
Tentative cost of courses
The fees vary according to the course opted for. A detailed structure of the tuition & fees, as well as financial aid is available at the university's official website.
Scholarships offered
Columbia University's educational financing options consist of federal, state, institutional and private sources of funds that will help meet the diverse needs of the student population .
Presence in India
The University has a global center in Mumbai.
Source: India Syndicate